Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan Standing On A Globe, 1630 (Fig.1) is a beautiful Mughal miniature from a larger collection. Miniatures commissioned by Mughal emperors usually focused on court life or important historical events and have been considered the pinnacle of Indian artistic achievement. Mughal paintings were most widespread from the 16th to 19th century arising from the Persian miniature painting and Islamic designs mingled with Indian culture, artistic freedom, and Buddhist, Hindu, or Jain influences, giving way to Bichitr. Bichitr was one of the most accomplished painters in the court of Shah Jahan. Being that Bichitr was of Hindu faith, it is interesting that he considered himself a royal servant of an Islamic court. Bichitr’s works lead a specific investigation into the history of culture and art practiced by the Mughals that emerged from a cross between Indian and Islamic culture and art, and how the Mughals used this to present themselves in a manner that captivated a nation and created a Golden Age in art. Though complex, it would be resourceful to approach this topic by examining pre- Mughal India. Followed by the annexation of India by the Mughal empire and what that meant for other religions and cultures indigenous to the area. Lastly, Hindu culture and art and that of the Mughal empire will be examined to identify the Indo- Islamic style that culminated the Golden Age of art during this period.
Pre- Mughal India & Art + Example
Early medieval India lasted from the mid 6th century to 1200 C.E. 2 Identified by its variety of languages, cultures, and religions, early medieval India was home to Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism controlled by countless empires. 2 Consequently, the Delhi Sultanate, Muslim kingdoms of Pashtun Afghan and Turkic origin, ushered in the medieval period from 1200 C.E. to 1526 C.E. 2 Initially politically unstable due to the turbulent transition of power from the native Indians to the Muslims, the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate gave way to a more centralized international and multicultural Islamic society. Still, waves of Muslim armies ravaged Buddhist and Hindu temples between the 11th and 13th centuries. 2 The first Delhi sultan, Qutb ud- din Aybak, guided India into a new age of culture and political excellence. 2 India instantly expanded their economic and social networks once assimilated into the Islamic civilizations. 2 These same networks endorsed technological advancements allowing the Indian empire to expand becoming a global power. 2
Sultanate illuminated manuscripts arose from 1450 C.E. to 1550 C.E. lacked a unifying style but are most associated with indigenous central or western Indian paintings of non- Muslim sacred texts. Painters were generally Indians skilled in conservative indigenous designs displayed by devotional manuscripts commissioned by Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains. 1 For religious reasons, most sultans were opposed to anthropomorphic figures. 4 The formations of royal painting workshops began to flourish under various rulers a blanket style of the Delhi Sultanate heavily imitated practices of Islamic paintings abroad leading to the establishment of Indo- Persian art. 5 The Indo- Persian style replicated the workshops of Iran and Turkmenistan while still embracing the personal taste of Indian rulers and regional styles. 5 Specific features of Delhi Sultanate paintings that preceded the Mughal empire consist of bright and unusual colors, groups of people standing in rows bearing identical poses, and adorned narrow bands arranged across the painting. 5
Ni’mat nāmā, or Book of Delights, are fifty medieval Indian miniatures. Written in Persian, the language reserved only for the elite, the Book of Delights details cultural recipes and delicacies, collected by the Sultan of Mandu, Ghiyath Shahi. Many of the miniatures feature the Sultan observing his companions, women of the court, slaves, and cooks, while other miniatures feature palace livestock and fauna. The opening miniatures are painted in the distinct Shiraz style of South Iran. 2 The later miniatures are illustrated in the indigenous styles of Central and West India, which are the earliest examples of Islamic Sultanate style paintings. 2 Above all, Book of Delights, miniatures display the influence of Persian style amongst Indian painters. 1 Still, the miniatures become more Indianized referencing Indian costume, architecture, and the technique of drawing faces in profile, unlike the half- profile associated with Persian styles, larger eyes, and a flat, depthless background filled with bright colors. Milking (Fig. 2) illustrates the usage of milk as an ingredient in kashk, a central Asian yougurt. 1 A late 15th century Persian Shiraz Turkman style is depicted through the high horizon line and substantial vegetation. 2 A modest cursive caption “gāv u shīr” translated, cow and milk, is arranged above the top margin as subtle instructions to the artist. 2 Preparation of samosas and lās (Fig. 3), a stew meat, is illustrated. Ghiyath Shani adorns the thrown wearing a crown and attended on by four servants. A small inscription of “kāsa”, royal meal, is visible. The women illustrated are donning distinct menswear, Persian and Indian garments, and turbans to be exact.1 A Turkman style turban is illustrated, along with Turkmen style landscapes. 1 Malwa Indigenous costume are also featured, and Indian facial types are used, as they are in profile. 1 Sultanate paintings differed from Mughal works because there was less of a focus on realism and more of an interest in pursuing the inward journey encompassing mystic overtones. 2 Sultanate paintings were commonly associated with tall women and small heads, lacked intricate detailed face painting that Mughal art was known for, bulky subjects with flat dimensions.
Mughal India & Art + Example
The long- awaited collapse of the Delhi Sultan commenced the early modern period of the great Mughal empire. From 1526 C.E. to 1857 C.E., India expanded geographically bringing forth knowledge and techniques from foreign lands allowing for the birth of a Golden Age. The Mughal faith of Islam delivered Iranian scribes, scholars, fighters, and artists, establishing a cultural hybrid amid medieval traditions and that of Indo- Persia. 6 This was the pinnacle of Mughal India. While medieval India saw centuries of pillaging and war for control of religion and territories, the early modern period was more established and subdued under Mughal emperors. Babur, emperor and founder of the Mughal dynasty, recognized the mixed ancestry of the Mughals through Turkish kinship relating to infamous Mongolian leader, Genghis Khan. This affair influenced Babur’s culturally tolerant rule in India. The Mughals were more liberal towards non- Muslims than the Delhi Sultans. Muslim emperors partook in Hindu ceremonies and observations such as Diwali, fed Hindu brahmins, and patronized religious literature. 6 This diplomacy created a means for Hindus and other faiths to be allowed in Mughal courts and fight as one for the Islamic empire against foreign conflict and religious resistances. 6 Akbar, one of the first Mughal rulers, established a synergetic religion coupling fundamentals of Islam and other faiths in the interest of alleviating cultural and socio-political differences within the empire although majority of native Indians converted to Islam, giving the Muslim dynasty a steady transition. 6 Akbar was also noted for establishing Persian as the official language of the Indian subcontinent regardless of social class or sect. The unity established by Akbar during the 16th and 17th century influenced India’s economic expansion bringing about European and non- European trade. MUGHAL EMPIRE
India’s melting pot of cultures and religions created the perfect canvas for unique artistic techniques, with a more contemporary European approach. After Akbar’s courts were introduced to European Renaissance works through Jesuit priests, Mughal artists adopted foreign techniques such as space, depth, and shading to illustrate the Mughal world without fully converting to a European style. While religious themes were still portrayed, Mughal works become almost exclusively secular. The new aspiration was realism in people, animals, and plants. A unique distinction of Mughal art is the absorption of Indian elements without ever representing a single Indian person or emotion. Mughal art solely represented the courts and culture.
FIG 2 (Mughal art) A Discourse Between Muslim Sages (1630)
Upon the introduction of Mughal techniques, realistic portraiture, usually in profile and influenced by Western prints, were being produced by the Mughal court. Portraits were generally of men and were naturalistic in manner. Mughal ateliers perfected the art of displaying handsome faces and chiseled bodies. Mughal emperors utilized portraits to project power.
PORTRAIT
FIG 3 (portrait) shah jahan
Mughal miniatures are the culmination of Indian bold colors, Persian delicate lines, and European baroque flavors. Miniatures of the natural world and court life flourished under emperors Akbar, Jahangir, and Sha Jahan during the 16th and 17th centuries. These meticulously detailed works were painted in a realistic manner containing jewel-like colors adorned with intricate borders and calligraphy. Mughal artists brought a sophistication to miniatures illustrating three- dimensional figures and accurate scenes of flora and fauna.
FIG 4 (miniature) Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaikh to Kings
While Mughal paintings were established under the patronage of ruling Mughal emperors, it was the individuality of court painters that created distinct and desirable styles. Bichitr was a 17th century Hindu painter in the Mughal court of Jahangir and Shah Jahan. While his works are vast, little is known about the actual life of Bichitr. His earliest work dates back to 1615 C.E. It was during this time that progressive rulers valued the arts and Bichitr was able to rise to prominence as a great master. Bichitr has been known to sign his works as the servant or slave of the royal court, establishing him humility and alliance to the Islamic Mughal empire.
Discussion of cultural and social climate during which your artist worked.
Bichitr lived and worked during a revolutionary time in Indian history. 17th century India witnessed the rule of the three greatest Mughal emperors, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. The regime of Jahangir from 1605 C.E. to 1627 C.E. and Shah Jahan from 1627 C.E. to 1658 C.E., were recognized for their political stability and supremacy in the arts and architecture. Shah Jahan specifically was acknowledged for this tolerance of all faiths. Under the reign of Aurangzeb from 1658 C.E. to 1707 C.E., the Mughal empire attained its greatest geographical reach, but evidence of a Mughal decline was imminent. Though Aurangzeb was a disciplined ruler, his religious bias made him ill- suited to govern the mixed population of his empire.
Discussion of other artists / influences that impacted on your artist / evolution/ example
FIG 5 (Bichitr OG) A PORTRAIT OF KHAN ZAMAN
Bichitr’s works tend to highlight his drawing capabilities for genre subjects and backgrounds filled with realistic detail. His technically refined portraits were second to none as his strength lied in illustrations of detailed facial features with noticeably feelings and expressions drew praise from Jahangir and Shah Jahan alike. While his initial works displayed soft, romantic qualities, his later works are characterized by clear, hard lines, and bold colors. There is an evolution in Bichitr’s works following the European Renaissance. He employs visual realism and scientific accuracy of light and shade, placings an emphasis on naturalism. His innovative ability to merge Indian iconography with European techniques layered upon Persian style cemented his name as a great of the Mughal courts.
FIG 6 (Bichitr w/ European influence)
Discussion of your selected work of art that includes discussion of formal properties.
Bichitr’s, Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan Standing On A Globe, (1630) is a full- length portrait of the late Mughal emperor. Shah Jahan translates to “King of the World” and this allegory filled watercolor is a statement of how the emperor wished to be perceived. Bichitr explores the possibility a light blue ethereal background can transform into a celestial one in which two angels appear above Shah Jahan. These cherubs hold a golden crown over the head of Shah Jahan either establishing him as the divine Mughal ruler chosen by God or is a shared symbol of grandeur acquired from the Virgin Mary. The background is further detailed with what appear to be faint drawings of two congregations of people who appear to either be advisors of the court of religious leaders lending their full support to the Mughal emperor. The halo around the head of Shah Jahan is an Indian divinity symbol reserved only for the royal family. The globe in which Shah Jahan stands on is a symbol of power. The lion and lamb laying peacefully beneath Shah Jahan’s feet is a Messianic symbol expressing aspirations for the dynasty. A defeated monarch, Jajhar Singh Bundela, kneels behind Shah Jahan in submission. Shah Jahan is exquisitely dressed in a robe, pants slippers, and pearls displaying his courtly style opposed to his military threads. His coat is tied on the right side, distinguishing his Islamic faith. The floral filled border is a 17th century ode to an aristocratic gentleman’s sophistication, character, and masculinity.
FIG 7 Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan Standing On A Globe
The Formal Elements are the parts used to make a piece of artwork. The art elements are line, shape, space, form, tone, texture, pattern, color and composition. They are often used together, and how they are organized in a piece of art determines what the finished piece will look like.
Make sure you discuss your artist work in relation to the cultural and political climate of the time
Conclusion
Artistic images used by the Mughal empire set the stage for a Golden Age and were used as propaganda for the masses. Shah Jahan’s love and passion for grand imagery led representations of his life and court to be transformed into impressions of cosmic splendor. This was a Political manifesto since Muslims were the minority in the empire. Bichitr, a Hindu, painter and servant was a prime example of the respect and loyalty earned by the Islamic Mughal empire by way of artistic expression.
A recommended way to proceed is to structure your paper chronologically, as this will easily incorporate factual elements about your artist’s biography. Comment on significant works of art produced by your artist, noting how stylistic approaches may have changed over time. Make sure you discuss your artist and her/his work in relation to the cultural and political climate of the time. As you proceed chronologically, you will arrive at the point when your work of art was created. Make sure you highlight your work in the discussion and proceed to treat your work in detail, presenting how your artist incorporated formal properties and how your work logically fits into the evolution of the body of created works that your artist accomplished. Close your essay with a conclusion.
Propaganda
The Mughals, who effectively ruled India during the 16th-17th c., built extensively, including palaces, mausoleums, mosques and vast gardens. These edifices reflect the dynasty’s past, often its imagined past, the glorious present and also the future in the guise of continuity and immortalization. The Taj Mahal of Agra, the tomb of the beloved wife of Shahjahan and the Red Fort he built are both the ultimate examples of this mélange of past, present and future all united for the glory of the empire. These edifices also exemplify the multicultural tendencies of this dynasty.
The manuscripts produced for Mughal rulers were heavily laced with propaganda as well. This phenomenon is evident mostly in the genres of portraiture and historical painting in which the figures are semi-realistic and motionless . By incorporating local and European modes of painting the Mughals glorified their achievements and propagated their agendas as the most exalted rulers in the world.
Most of the dynasty’s cultural achievements can be attributed to their multicultural policies and their deep commitment to impartiality towards members of different religious, ethnic, lingual and cultural groups.
